Short Answer: No. You will need to register an application with Azure AD to be able to authenticate.
Longer Answer:
AFAIK all of the OAuth 2.0 grants for authentication supported by Azure AD will require some information about the client (i.e. registered application) that is being used to make the authentication call. This would be true whether you use ADAL Libraries or directly hit the relevant token/authorization endpoints.
You may already know but it's worth mentioning that the simplest and recommended way to do authentication/query user data with right privileges will be to register your application with Azure AD.
In fact default setup for Azure AD, is such that it promotes the use case of developers being able to register applications and consent to applications on their own behalf. Read here.. Who has permission to add applications to my Azure AD instance? and at the end it mentions that Microsoft itself uses the same configuration internally.
Full Disclosure: I know that some very knowledgeable people (Microsoft MVP's, Microsoft Azure AD team members) follow the azure-active-directory tag. So even though I think this is the right answer, your question is such that it would make sense to wait for more answers/comments to see if there is anything else possible.
Possible workaround if it suits your scenario:
In case you don't want to register your application just because you don't have permissions to a specific Azure Active Directory tenant, there may be a workaround possible.
You would still need to register your application but with a different Azure AD tenant or with Azure AD B2C, and then make your application as a multi-tenant. See this SO post for more details.